The text that follows is a PREPRINT.
Please cite
as:
Fearnside, P.M. 1996. Amazonia and global warming: Annual balance
of greenhouse gas emissions from land-use change in Brazil's Amazon region. pp.
606-617 In: J. Levine (ed.) Biomass Burning and Global Change. Volume 2:
Biomass Burning in South America, Southeast Asia and Temperate and Boreal
Ecosystems and the Oil Fires of Kuwait. MIT Press, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, U.S.A. 902 pp.
Copyright: MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
The original publication is available from: MIT Press,
Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
AMAZONIA AND GLOBAL WARMING: ANNUAL
BALANCE OF GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS FROM LAND USE CHANGE IN BRAZIL'S AMAZON
REGION
Philip M. Fearnside
National Institute for Research
in the Amazon (INPA)
C.P. 478
69011-970 Manaus, Amazonas
BRAZIL
Fax: 55 - 92 - 642-3028
Paper presented at the American Geophysical Union Chapman Conference on Biomass Burning and Global Change. March 13-17, 1995, Williamsburg, Virginia.
2 July 1995
9 Aug. 1995
ABSTRACT
Land use changes in 1990 in Brazil's 5 X 106 km2 Legal Amazon Region included 13.8 X 103 km2 of deforestation, approximately 5 X 103 km2 of clearing in cerrado (savanna), 7 X 102 km2 in "old" (pre-1970) and 19 X 103 km2 in "young" (1970+) secondary forests; burning of 40 X 103 km2 of productive pasture (33% of area present), and regrowth in 121 X 103 km2 of "young" secondary forests. No new hydroelectric flooding occurred in 1990, but decomposition continued in 4.8 X 103 km2 of reservoirs already in place. Logging 24.6 X 106 m3 was assumed, the 1988 official rate.
Unlogged original forest in Brazilian Amazonia are estimated to have an average total biomass of 464 metric tons per hectare (t ha-1), including below-ground and dead components. Adjustment for the spatial distribution of clearing and for logging indicates an average total biomass cleared in 1990 of 407 t ha-1 in original forest areas, 308 t ha-1 of which is above-ground (exposed to the initial burn). In addition to emissions from the initial burn, remains from clearing in previous years emitted gases through decay and combustion in reburns. More rapid deforestation in the years preceding 1990 make these inherited emissions greater than they would have been had deforestation rates been constant at their 1990 levels.
Emissions are calculated in low- and high-trace gas scenarios, reflecting the range of emissions factors appearing in the literature for different burning and decomposition processes. These scenarios do not reflect the uncertainty of values for deforestation rate, forest biomass, logging intensity and other inputs to the calculation.
Sinks for carbon are calculated for conversion to charcoal and graphitic particulate carbon. Charcoal represented 5.6 X 106 t of carbon, while graphitic particulate carbon represented 0.32-0.42 X 106 t.
Estimated net emissions from deforestation (not including logging emissions) totaled 1245-1248 X 106 t CO2, 2.0-2.4 X 106 t CH4, 36-46 X 106 t CO, and 0.15-0.27 X 106 t N2O. These emissions are equivalent to 358-367 X 106 t of CO2-equivalent carbon, using IPCC 1992 100-year GWPs (direct effects only). CO2 emissions include 228 X 106 t of gas from the initial burn, 876-878 X 106 t from decay and 83 X 106 t from subsequent burns of primary forest biomass; 44-45 X 106 t from decay and 53-56 X 106 t from burning of secondary forest biomass of all ages; 37 X 106 t from hydroelectric reservoirs, 32 X 106 t from soil to 20 cm, and 220 X 106 t from logging. Pastures release through burning (and assimilate in growth) 17-18 X 106 t, not counted in the above total. Secondary forest regrowth removes 108 X 106 t (only 8% of the gross emission, excluding pasture). The total CO2 emissions, excluding logging, are triple Brazil's official estimate, mainly because the latter omits decay and combustion after initial deforestation.
INTRODUCTION: TYPES OF EMISSION CALCULATIONS
Deforestation
in Brazilian Amazonia releases quantities of greenhouse gases that are
significant both in terms of their present impact and in terms of the implied
potential for long-term contribution to global warming from continued clearing
of Brazil's vast area of remaining forest.
The way in which emissions are calculated can have a tremendous effect
on the impact attributed to deforestation.
One form of calculation is net committed emissions, which expresses the
ultimate contribution of transforming the forested landscape into a new one,
using as the basis of comparison the mosaic of land uses that would result from
an equilibrium condition created by projection of current trends. This includes emissions from decay or
reburning of logs that are left unburned when forest is initially felled
(committed emissions), and uptake of carbon from growing secondary forests on
sites abandoned after use in agriculture and ranching (committed uptake), to
give net committed emissions (Fearnside, 1992).
Another
form of calculation, which is the subject of the present paper, looks at the
annual balance of release and uptake of greenhouse gases in a given year. Estimates of the annual balance of greenhouse
gases for specific regions are needed in order to understand the fluxes of
these gases at a global level.
The
annual balance appears likely to form the basis for assigning responsibility
for global warming among nations. The
Framework Convention on Climate Change, which was signed in June 1992 by 155
countries plus the European Union at the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, requires that each
country make an inventory of the sources, sinks and reservoirs of greenhouse
gases--indicating that the guiding principle for quantifying impact will be the
net flux of gases entering and leaving the atmosphere.
The
criterion of annual balance or flux has important implications for how
different response strategies are viewed by individual countries. Global interests are not necessarily
analogous with national interests. One
consequence of the emphasis on annual flux is that the act of cutting trees is
not the critical moment for counting greenhouse effect impact, but rather
fluxes that occur after this event. In
the case of wood exported from any given country, the greenhouse impact will be
counted against the importing country where the wood products will eventually
decay.
Wood
exporting countries get credit for carbon removed from the atmosphere as the
trees grow. The credit is further
enhanced by an increase in growth rates in trees that remain after forests are
logged. The emissions credits can be
expected to accrue to wood exporting countries to the extent that carbon leaves
these countries in the form of wood or wood products instead of as CO2
or other gases; when the paper, buildings, furniture and other products eventually
decay or burn, the emission is added to the account of the country where the
carbon enters the atmosphere. This means
that timber exports can contribute to greenhouse credit‑-but the net
effect may be otherwise, as non-exported portions of harvested trees, and the
many other trees killed or damaged during logging operations, lead to immediate
emissions. More emissions come from
deforestation done by immigrants and others whose entry is facilitated by
logging roads. Assessment of current and
potential contributions of each of these processes is a high priority. Annual balance calculations in the present
paper offer a starting point for evaluating these implications.
The
annual balance represents an instantaneous measure of the fluxes of greenhouse
gases, of which carbon dioxide is one.
This is sometimes called the annual balance of net emissions. Even though the present calculations are made
on a yearly basis, they are termed
"instantaneous" here to emphasize the fact that they do not
include future consequences of deforestation and other actions taking place
during the year in question. It should
be stressed that annual balance is not the best measure of the
greenhouse impact of deforestation, which should include the future releases
and uptakes. Net committed emissions and
time-weighted net emissions are more meaningful for policy decisions,
especially the latter. Time-weighted net
emissions calculates the net flux for each year, allowing application of a time
horizon and a time-preference weighting scheme (either discounting or an
alternative procedure) to reflect the values placed by society on short-term
versus long-term effects.
Using the annual fluxes of greenhouse gases to
and from the atmosphere as the basis for assigning responsibility for global
warming, while much better than nothing, contains various distortions as a
basis for fixing the blame for the greenhouse effect. The industrialized countries escape all
responsibility for having used up much of the capacity of the oceans and other
sinks to absorb carbon, as these are now largely saturated with carbon that has
come from historical burning of fossil fuels and from removal of temperate
forests in these countries. On the other
side, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which provides the
technical basis for the climate convention negotiation process, currently
calculates the effects of trace gases such as methane (CH4), carbon
monoxide (CO) and nitrous oxide (N2O) such that their impact
relative to CO2 is understated: all indirect effects of these gases
are ignored, and the time preference scheme adopted for standard calculations
emphasizes long-lived gases (like CO2) by considering a 100-year
period without discounting (Isaksen et al., 1992). The relatively greater weight that these
procedures give to CO2 favors tropical countries, where other
gases--such as methane from deforestation, rice paddies and livestock--make up
a greater portion of emissions than in industrialized countries where fossil
fuel burning dominates greenhouse gas contributions.
GREENHOUSE EMISSIONS
Initial burn
Greenhouse
gas emissions and uptakes are tabulated for a "low trace gas
scenario" (Table 1) and for a "high trace gas scenario" (Table
2). These two scenarios use high and low
values appearing in the literature for the emissions factors for each gas in
different types of burning (reviewed in Fearnside, 1991, 1992). They do not reflect the doubt concerning
forest biomass, deforestation rates, burning efficiency and other important
factors.
(Tables
1 and 2 here)
The
initial burn represents 228 X 106 t of CO2 gas, or 17% of
the gross emission of 1353-1357 X 106 t. Gross emission of a gas refers to all
releases of the gas, but not uptakes.
The initial burn contribution of CH4 is 0.74-0.88 of
1.98-2.39 X 106 t (37%), CO is 18-22 of 36-46 X 106 t
(48-50%) and N2O is 0.05 of 0.15-0.27 X 106 t (19-33%). For NOx and NMHC, if considered
apart from the loss of mature forest sources, represent, respectively, 0.56 of
1.38 X 106 t (41%) and 0.49-0.93 of 0.85-1.61 X 106 t
(58%).
The
average biomass of the primary forests present in the Brazilian Amazon has been
estimated based on analysis of published wood volume data from 2954 ha of
forest inventory surveys distributed throughout the region (Fearnside,
nd-a). Average total biomass
(including dead and below-ground components) is estimated to be 463 t ha-1
for all unlogged mature forests originally present in the Brazilian Legal
Amazon. The average above-ground biomass
is 354 t ha-1, of which 28 t ha-1 is dead; below-ground
biomass averages 109 t ha-1.
The total biomass estimates are disaggregated by state and forest type,
allowing use of the data in conjunction with Brazil's LANDSAT-based
deforestation estimates, which are reported on a state-by-state basis (Fearnside
et al., nd-a; Fearnside, 1993a,b.
The
areas of protected and unprotected vegetation of each type in each state have
been estimated (Fearnside and Ferraz, 1995). By multiplying the per-hectare biomass of
each forest type by the unprotected area present in each state, one can
estimate the biomass cleared if one assumes that clearing within each state is
distributed among the different vegetation types in proportion to the
unprotected area present. By weighting
the biomass by the deforestation rate in each state, the average total biomass
cleared in 1990 has been estimated to be 434 t ha-1, or 6.3% lower
than the average for forests present in the Legal Amazon as a whole (see Fearnside,
1992). The difference is due to concentration
of clearing activity along the southern and eastern edges of the forest, where
per-hectare biomass is lower than in the areas of slower deforestation in the
central and northern parts of the region.
The
burning efficiency (percentage of pre-burn carbon presumed emitted as gases)
averaged 32.6% in available studies: 27.6% in a 1984 burn and 28.3% in a 1990
burn studied near Manaus (Fearnside et al., 1993, nd-b);
and 42.0% in three burns in 1986 studied in Altamira, Pará (Fearnside et
al., nd-c). Adjustments for
the effect of logging on the diameter distribution of the biomass gives an
efficiency of 33.2%.
Charcoal
formation averaged 2.7% and 1.8% of pre-burn above-ground carbon at Manaus (Fearnside
et al., 1993) and 1.3% in Altamira (Fearnside et al., nd-c). The value used in the present calculation is
the average value of 1.9%.
Graphitic
particulate carbon is another sink for carbon that is burned. This is calculated by emission factors from
the amount of wood combusted. The amount
of carbon entering this sink is only 1/20 the amount entering the charcoal sink
(Tables 1 and 2).
The
pre-1970 secondary forest must be considered separately from the primary
forest, as these areas are not included in the deforestation rate estimate
(13.8 X 106 km2 year-1 in 1990). A rough estimate of clearing rate is derived
in Table 3. The amounts of greenhouse
gases contributed by clearing of pre-1970 forest are very small (Tables 1 and
2).
(Table
3 here)
Subsequent burns
Subsequent
burns combust both remains of original forest and the secondary forest
biomass. The original forest remains
burned with an efficiency of 28.0% in a study in Roraima (Fearnside et
al., nd-d). In pasture
burning in Roraima studied by Barbosa (1994) 12.3% of the pre-burn
carbon in the original forest remains was consumed. The mean of the results of the two studies
(20.1%) is used in the present calculation.
Decay of unburned remains
Above-ground
decay of unburned remains is calculated the available studies listed in Table
4. Decay makes a significant
contribution to greenhouse gas emissions, and it is apparent that the focus of
interest on biomass burning leads many to overlook the contributions of decay. The greenhouse gas emissions from
deforestation that have been put forward by official Brazilian government
sources (Borges, 1992; Silveira, 1992) are lower than those
calculated in the present paper by a factor of three, mainly because they
ignore the inherited emissions, in which decay plays a large role.
(Table
4 here)
Termite
emissions of methane from decay of unburned biomass (Martius et al.,
nd) are substantially lower than previous estimates (Fearnside, 1991,
1992). This is mainly because estimates
of the number of termites in deforested areas indicate that the populations are
insufficient to consume the quantity of wood that had previously been
assumed. Nasutitermes macrocephalus,
the only species of Amazonian termite for which measurements are available,
consumes 49 mg of dry wood per g termites per day (Martius, 1989). Lower emissions of methane (0.002 g CH4
per g of dry wood consumed) also contributes to lower emissions from this
source, estimated to total only 0.02 X 106 t of CH4 gas
from original forest in cleared area in 1990 (Tables 1-2).
Soils
In
order to estimate CO2 emissions from soils, one must consider the
layer of soil in the replacement land-use, such as pasture, that is compacted
from a given depth of forest soil (see Fearnside, 1980). The emission calculated here (30-32 X 106
t CO2) considers only the top 20 cm of forest soil; considering soil
to 1-m depth would approximately double these emissions. Converting forest to pasture releases 3.96 t
C ha-1 from the top 20 cm of forest soil (see Fearnside,
1991, 1992). Pasture soil also emits N2O
(Luizão et al., 1989).
Removal of sources and sinks in pre-clearing
landscape
1.)
Soil sink for CH4
The
tropical forest soil provides a natural sink for methane, removing 0.0004 tons
of carbon per hectare per year (Keller et al., 1986). Clearing the forest eliminates this sink,
thereby having an effect equal to a source of the same magnitude. In 1990 the forests that had been cleared
accounted for 0.02 X 106 t of CH4 gas (Tables 1 and 2).
2.)
Forest source of NOx and NMHC
The
leaves of the forest release 0.0131 t ha-1 year-1 of NOx
(Kaplan et al., 1988; see Keller et al., 1991) and
0.12 t ha-1 year-1 of NMHC (Rasmussen and Khalil,
1988, p. 1420). No information is available
on the releases of these gases from the replacement vegetation. Assuming no releases from farmland,
productive and degraded cattle pasture, and releases from secondary forests the
same as those from primary forests, the landscape in 1990 implied a negative
flux of 2.73 X 106 t year-1 of NOx and a
positive flux of 1.02 X 106 t of NMHC (Tables 1 and 2).
3.) CH4
release by termites
Termites
in the mature forest release methane produced by bacteria that digest cellulose
under anaerobic conditions in the insects' abdomens. These emissions will be lost when forest is
cleared, but for a long time thereafter these emissions will be more than
compensated for by termites that ingest the unburned biomass after
clearing. In calculating emissions from
termites in the forest, the item of interest is the absolute amount of biomass
decaying annually (in t ha-1 year-1), rather than the
rate (fraction) of decomposition per year.
For fine litter the amount can be known directly from data on litter
fall rates, since all that falls decomposes and the level of the stock can be
assumed to be in equilibrium. For coarse
litter such data are unavailable, and the amount decomposing must be calculated
from information on the stock and the rate of decomposition. Dead trees in a tropical forest can decay
remarkably quickly. The decay constant
(k) for decomposition of boles in Panama has been calculated to be 0.461 year-1
for trees >10 cm DBH, based on observation after a 10-year interval (Lang
and Knight, 1979). Here, however,
the lower decay rates measured in slash-and-burn fields (Table 4) are used for
all coarse biomass. The amounts of fine
and coarse litter are calculated from available studies in Tables 5 and 6.
(Tables
5 and 6 here)
Hydroelectric dams
One of
the impacts of hydroelectric dams in Amazonia is emission of greenhouse gases
such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4). Hydropower is often promoted by government
authorities as a "clean" source of energy, in contrast to fossil
fuels. While fossil fuel contributions
to global warming are well-known, hydroelectric dams are not free of
impact. The ratio of impact to benefit
varies tremendously among dams depending on their power output. Balbina has the worst balance of impact to
benefit due to the large area of the reservoir (2360 km2) compared
to the power generated, which averages only 109 megawatts delivered to Manaus (Fearnside,
1989).
Existing
hydroelectric dams in Brazilian Amazonia emitted about 0.27 X 106 t
of methane and 37 X 106 t of carbon dioxide in 1990. The CO2 flux in 1990 included part
of the large peak of release from above-water decay of trees left standing in
the Balbina reservoir (closed in 1987) and the Samuel reservoir (closed in
1988). Most CO2 release
occurs in the first decade after closing.
The methane emissions represent an essentially permanent addition to gas
fluxes from the region, rather than a one-time release. The total area of reservoirs planned in the
region is about 20 times the area existing in 1990, implying a potential annual
methane release of about 5.2 X 106 t. About 40% of this estimated release is from
underwater decay of forest biomass, which is the most uncertain of the
components in the calculation. Methane
is also released from open water, macrophyte beds, and above-water decay of
forest biomass (Fearnside, 1995a).
Logging
In a
typical situation, forests accessible by land or river transportation are
logged, reducing their biomass both by the removal of timber and by killing or
damaging many unharvested trees. This
logged-over forest is later cleared for agriculture or cattle ranching. False color LANDSAT-TM images show small red
dots appearing in a band around some deforested areas; in the next year the
areas with the red dots have been cleared in the normal way (L. Gylvan Meira
Filho, personal communication, 1993).
The red dots probably indicate disturbance from heavy levels of
selective logging in the year prior to felling.
The
effect of logging is not as straightforward as it might appear. By removing the trunks of large trees, the
burning efficiency will increase, as will the average decay rate of the
unburned biomass. This is because
small-diameter branches burn better and decay more quickly than do large trunks. These changes will partially compensate for
the reduction in emissions from lower biomass.
Where discounting or time preference weighting gives emphasis to
short-term releases, the effect of logging will be further reduced, since the
large logs removed would have been slow to decay had they been left in the
forest.
The
values for biomass from "unlogged" forest (Fearnside, nd-a)
represent the best estimates for each forest type at the time it was surveyed
(in the 1950s in the case of the FAO forest inventories that comprise 10% of
the data and in the early 1970s in the case of the RADAMBRASIL data covering
the remaining 90%). FAO data are
from Heinsdijk (1957, 1958a,b,c) and Glerum (1960);
RADAMBRASIL data are from Brazil, Projeto RADAMBRASIL (1973-1983). There
is some reason to believe that the survey teams avoided logged-over locations (Sombroek,
1992). In addition, logging damage was
much less widespread at the time of the surveys than it is at present. Logging is progressing rapidly, with the fraction
of areas cleared that are logged prior to felling increasing
noticeably since the mid-1970s as road access has improved. The number of sawmills purchasing wood has
exploded, and wood prices have increased (cf. Veríssimo et al.
1992). In addition, logs and wood for
charcoal and firewood are sometimes sold after the burn.
The
biomass reduction due to logging in areas being felled is much higher than the
average biomass reduction over the forest as a whole, as the areas being felled
generally have the best road access.
Much of the biomass reduction from logging will result in gas releases
similar to those that would occur through felling: decay of the slash and the
substantial number of non-commercial trees that are killed or damaged during
the logging process; decay and/or burning of the scrap generated in the
sawmilling process, plus a slower decay of wood products made from the
harvested timber (see Fearnside, 1995b). With adjustment for logging, areas cleared in
1990 had an average total biomass of 407 t ha-1, of which 250 t ha-1
was above-ground live biomass, 58 t ha-1 was above-ground dead and
98 t ha-1 was below-ground.
Interpretation of historical emissions
The
annual balance should not be confused with the change in the annual
balance. Many components of the balance,
such as the fluxes from soils, termites and native forest vegetation that are
lost when conversion occurs, will not change much as time progresses. The question of how much historical emissions
will weigh, if anything, in international negotiations is still an open
one. The industrialized countries have
been the principal emitters of gases, especially CO2, in the past,
and any weighting for historical emissions by country would undoubtedly reflect
this.
The area
considered for calculating the loss of intact forest sources and sinks is taken
here to be all of the 4.15 X 106 ha deforested through 1990,
regardless of how long ago the original forest was cleared. About 75% of the clearing in Brazilian
Amazonia has occurred within the past two decades, and the remaining 25% is
almost all from within the present century.
In other parts of the world the issue of a cutoff time for inherited
effects is more complicated, and remains unresolved--such as the question of
whether accounting should include removal of natural methane sources from
Asiatic wetlands that were converted to irrigated rice several thousand years
ago.
The
treatment of historical emissions is important for establishing the way that responsibility
for global warming is shared among countries.
Knowing the magnitude of historical emissions is not necessary, however,
for the annual balance (and its separate components) to be useful in
understanding the global biogeochemical balances of the gases concerned, the
magnitude of changes in the annual balance over the coming years as
national inventory data are compiled, and the potential effectiveness of
different response options in altering the annual balance of greenhouse gases.
UPTAKE BY REPLACEMENT VEGETATION
The replacement landscape
A
Markov matrix of annual transition probabilities was constructed to estimate
landscape composition in 1990 and to project future changes, assuming behavior
of farmers and ranchers remains unchanged.
Transition probabilities for small farmers are derived from satellite
studies of government settlement areas (Moran et al. 1994; Skole et
al., 1994). Probabilities for
ranchers are derived from typical behavior elicited in interview surveys by Uhl
et al., 1988). Six land uses are
considered, which, when divided to reflect age structure, results in a matrix
of 98 rows and columns.
The
estimated 1990 landscape was 5.4% farmland, 44.8% productive pasture, 2.2%
degraded pasture, 2.1% 'young' (1970 or later) secondary forest derived from
agriculture, and 28.1% 'young' secondary forest derived from pasture, and 17.4%
'old' (pre-1970) secondary forest. The
landscape would eventually approach an equilibrium of 4.0% farmland, 43.8%
productive pasture, 5.2% degraded pasture, 2.0% secondary forest derived from
agriculture, and 44.9% secondary forest derived from pasture. An insignificant amount is regenerated
'forest' (defined as secondary forest over 100 years old). Average total biomass (dry matter, including
below-ground and dead components) was 43.5 t ha-1 in 1990
in the 410 X 103 km2 deforested by that year for uses
other than hydroelectric dams. At
equilibrium, average biomass would be 28.5 t ha-1 over all
deforested areas (excluding dams) (Fearnside,
nd-b)
Secondary forest growth rates
The
growth rate of secondary forests is critical in determining the uptake over the
replacement landscape. Most discussions
of uptake by secondary forests have assumed that these will grow at the rapid
rates that characterize shifting cultivation fallows (e.g. Lugo and
Brown, 1981, 1982). In Brazilian
Amazonia, however, most deforestation is for cattle pasture, shifting
cultivation playing a relative minor role (Fearnside, 1993a). Secondary forests on degraded pastures grow
much more slowly than on sites where only annual crops have been planted
following the initial forest felling.
Brown
and Lugo (1990) have reviewed the available data on growth of tropical
secondary forests. The available
information is virtually all from shifting cultivation fallows. Brown and Lugo (1990, p. 17) trace a
freehand graph from available data for secondary forest stands ranging in age
from 1 to 80 years, including biomass for wood (twigs, branches and stems: 13
data points), leaves (10 data points), and roots (12 data points). This has been used to estimate growth rate
and the root/shoot ratio for shifting cultivation fallows of different
ages. Secondary forests on abandoned
pastures grow more slowly (Guimarães, 1993; Uhl et al.,
1988). This information on growth rate
of secondary vegetation of different origins has been used to calculate uptakes
in the landscape in 1990 (Fearnside and Guimarães, nd).
NET ANNUAL EMISSIONS
Considering
only CO2, 1353-1357 X 106 t of gas were emitted (gross
emission) by deforestation (not including logging emissions). Deducting the uptake of 108 X 106
t yields a net emission of 1245-1249 X 106 t of CO2, or
340-341 X 106 t of carbon.
Adding effects of trace gases using the IPCC's 1992 global warming potentials
for a 100-year time horizon (direct effects only), the impacts increase to
358-367 X 106 t of CO2-equivalent carbon. Consideration of indirect effects of trace
gases would raise these values substantially.
Logging added 220 X 106 t of CO2 gas, plus trace
gases that raised the impact to 222-224 X 106 t of CO2
equivalent, considering direct effects only.
Brazil's
1990 contribution from Amazonian deforestation alone, considering only CO2
(1353-1357 X 106 t), represented approximately 5% of the total
global emissions from fossil fuels and deforestation. The value 1991 was approximately 4%. This is three times higher than the value of
1.4% that has been frequently put forward by INPE (Borges, 1992; Silveira,
1992). The principal reason for the
discrepancy is omission of inherited emissions in the INPE figure.
CONCLUSIONS
The
annual balance of greenhouse gas emissions from land use change in Brazilian
Amazonia in 1990 was dominated by deforestation. In terms of carbon dioxide only,
approximately 26% was from prompt emissions from deforestation in that year,
and 74% was inherited emissions principally from decay and reburning of
unburned biomass left from clearing in previous years. Because deforestation rates declined in the
three years immediately preceding 1990, the annual balance from deforestation (i.e.
excluding logging) is higher than the net committed emissions, or the net
amounts of greenhouse gases that will ultimately be emitted as a result of the
clearing done in 1990. The annual balance
is higher by 35% if only CO2 is considered and by 29% if the CO2
equivalents of other gases are also included.
Net committed emissions would be equal to the annual balance that would
prevail were deforestation to proceed at a constant rate over a long period.
The
amounts of net emissions (excluding logging) are calculated for low and high
trace gas scenarios, expressing the range of available estimates of emission
factors, but not the range of doubt for estimates of biomass and deforestation
rates. The net emissions, expressed in
millions of tons of gas were: CO2: 1245-1249; CH4:
2.0-2.4; CO: 36-46; N2O: 0.15-0.27; NOx: -2.7 - -2.9;
NMHC: 0.4-1.2. Logging releases an
additional 220 X 106 t of CO2 gas, plus trace gases
equivalent to 2-4 X 106 t of CO2.
Acknowledgments. The Pew Scholars Program in
Conservation and the Environment provided financial support. S.V. Wilson made helpful comments on the
manuscript.
REFERENCES
Barbosa, R.I. 1994. Efeito Estufa na Amazônia: Estimativa da Biomassa e a Quantificação do
Estoque e Liberação de Carbono na Queima de Pastagens Convertidas de Florestas
Tropicais em Roraima, Brasil.
Masters thesis in ecology, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia
(INPA) and Universidade Federal do Amazonas (UFAM).
Barbosa, R.I. and P.M. Fearnside. nd. Carbon and
nutrient flows in an amazonian forest: fine litter production and composition
Colônia do Apiaú, Roraima, Brazil. Journal
of Geophysical Research (Atmospheres) (in press).
Bartholomew, W.V., J. Meyer and H. Laudelout.
1953. Mineral nutrient immobilization
under forest and grass fallow in the Yangambi (Belgian Congo) region. Publication de l'Institut Nacional pour l'étude
Agronomique du Congo Belge. Série Scientifique No. 57. 27 pp.
Borges, L.
1992. "Desmatamento emite só 1,4% de carbono, diz Inpe" O Estado
de São Paulo 10 April 1992, p. 13.
Brazil,
Projeto RADAMBRASIL. 1973-1983. Levantamento de Recursos Naturais, Vols.
1-23. Ministério das Minas e
Energia, Departamento Nacional de Produção Mineral (DNPM), Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil.
Brown, S. and A.E. Lugo. 1990. Tropical secondary
forests. Journal of Tropical Ecology 6: 1-32.
Brown, S. and A.E. Lugo. 1992. Aboveground biomass estimates for tropical
moist forests of the Brazilian Amazon. Interciencia
17(1): 8-18.
Buschbacher, R.J. 1984. Changes in
Productivity and Nutrient Cycling following Conversion of Amazon Rainforest to
Pasture. Ph.D. dissertation in
ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, U.S.A.
Cuevas, E. and E. Medina. 1988. Nutrient dynamics within Amazonian forests
II. Fine root growth, nutrient
availability and leaf litter decomposition.
Oecologia 76: 222-235.
Dantas, M. and J. Phillipson. 1989. Litterfall
and litter nutrient content in primary and secondary Amazonian 'terra firme' rain
forest. Journal of Tropical Ecology 5: 27-36.
Ewel, J.J. 1971.
Biomass changes in early tropical succession. Turrialba 21: 110-112.
Ewel, J.J. 1975.
Biomass of second growth tropical moist forest. pp. 143-150 In: F.B. Golley, J.T. McGinnis, R.G.
Clements, G.I. Child and M.J. Duever (eds.) Mineral Cycling in a Tropical
Moist Forest Ecosystem. University of Georgia Press, Athens, Georgia. 248
pp.
Fearnside, P.M. 1980. The effects of cattle
pastures on soil fertility in the Brazilian Amazon: consequences for beef
production sustainability. Tropical Ecology 21(1): 125‑137.
Fearnside, P.M. 1990. The rate and extent of
deforestation in Brazilian Amazonia. Environmental Conservation 17(3):
213-226.
Fearnside, P.M. 1991. Greenhouse gas contributions from
deforestation in Brazilian Amazonia. pp. 92-105 In: J.S. Levine (ed.) Global Biomass Burning: Atmospheric,
Climatic, and Biospheric Implications. MIT Press, Boston, Massachusetts.
640 pp.
Fearnside, P.M. 1992. Greenhouse Gas Emissions
from Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon.
Carbon Emissions and Sequestration in Forests: Case Studies from Developing Countries.
Volume 2. LBL-32758, UC-402. Climate
Change Division, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC and Energy and
Environment Division, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory (LBL), University of
California (UC), Berkeley, California, U.S.A. 73 pp.
Fearnside, P.M. 1993a. Deforestation in Brazilian
Amazonia:
The effect of population and land tenure. Ambio
22(8): 537-545.
Fearnside, P.M. 1993b. Desmatamento na
Amazônia: Quem tem razão -- o INPE ou a
NASA? Ciência Hoje 16(96):
6-8.
Fearnside, P.M. 1995a. Hydroelectric dams in the
Brazilian Amazon as sources of 'greenhouse' gases. Environmental
Conservation 22(1): 7-19.
Fearnside, P.M. 1995b. Global warming response
options in Brazil's forest sector:
Comparison of project-level costs and benefits. Biomass and Bioenergy
(in press).
Fearnside, P.M. nd-a. Biomass of Brazil's Amazonian forests (in
preparation).
Fearnside, P.M. 1996 [nd-b]. Amazonian
deforestation and global warming: Carbon
stocks in vegetation replacing Brazil's Amazon forest. For. Ecol. Manage.
80: 21-34.
Fearnside, P.M. and W.M. Guimarães. 1996. Carbon
uptake by secondary forests in Brazilian Amazonia. For. Ecol. Manage. 80:
35-46.
Fearnside, P.M. and J. Ferraz. 1995. A
conservation gap analysis of Brazil's Amazonian vegetation. Conservation
Biology 9(5): 1134-1147.
Fearnside, P.M., L.G. Meira Filho, and A.T.
Tardin. nd-a. Deforestation rate in Brazilian Amazonia. (in preparation).
Fearnside, P.M., N. Leal Filho and P.M.
Fernandes. 1993. Rainforest burning and the global carbon budget: Biomass,
combustion efficiency and charcoal formation in the Brazilian Amazon. Journal
of Geophysical Research (Atmospheres) 98(D9): 16,733-16,743.
Fearnside, P.M., P.M.L.A. Graça, N. Leal Filho,
F.J.A. Rodrigues, and J.M. Robinson. nd-c.
Tropical forest burning in Brazilian Amazonia: Measurements of biomass,
combustion efficiency and charcoal formation at Altamira, Pará (in preparation).
Fearnside, P.M., R.I. Barbosa and P.M.L.A. Graça.
nd-d. Burning of secondary forest in
Amazonia: Biomass, combustion efficiency and charcoal formation during land
preparation for agriculture in Roraima, Brazil (in preparation).
Fearnside, P.M., P.M.L.A. Graça and F.J.A.
Rodrigues. nd-b. Burning of Amazonian rainforests: Burning efficiency and
charcoal formation in forest cleared for cattle pasture near Manaus, Brazil.
(in preparation).
Franken, M., U. Irmler and H. Klinge. 1979. Litterfall in inundation, riverine and terra
firme forests of Central Amazonia. Tropical
Ecology 20(2): 225-235.
Glerum, B.B. 1960. Report to the Government of
Brazil on a Forestry Inventory in the Amazon Valley (Part Five) (Region between
Rio Caete and Rio Maracassume), FAO Report No. 1250, Project No. BRA/FO,
6en Sociale Geografie 68(5): 297‑311. Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy.
Guimarães,
W.M. 1993. Liberação de carbono e
mudanças nos estoques dos nutrientes contidos na biomassa aérea e no solo
resultante de queimadas de florestas secundárias em áreas de pastagens
abandonadas, em Altamira, Pará.
Masters thesis in Ecology, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da
Amazônia/Fundação Universidade do Amazonas (INPA/FUA), Manaus. 69 pp.
Heinsdijk, D. 1957. Report to the Government
of Brazil on a Forest Inventory in the Amazon Valley (Region between Rio
Tapajós and Rio Xingú). FAO Report No. 601, Project No. BRA/FO, Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy. 135 pp.
Heinsdijk, D. 1958a. Report to the Government of Brazil on a
Forest Inventory in the Amazon Valley (Part Three) (Region between Rio Tapajós
and Rio Madeira), FAO Report No.
969, Project No. BRA/FO, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy. 83 pp.
Heinsdijk, D. 1958b. Report to the Government of Brazil on a
Forest Inventory in the Amazon Valley (Part Four) (Region between Rio Tocantins
and Rios Guamá and Capim), FAO Report No. 992, Project No. BRA/FO, Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy. 72 pp.
Heinsdijk, D. 1958c. Report to the Government
of Brazil on a Forestry Inventory in the Amazon Valley (Part Two) (Region
between Rio Xingú and Rio Tocantins),
FAO Report No. 949, Project No. BRA/FO, Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy. 94 pp.
Isaksen, I.S.A., V. Ramaswamy, H. Rodhe and
T.M.L. Wigley. 1992. Radiative forcing of climate. pp. 47-67 In: J.T. Houghton, B.A. Callander
and S.K. Varney (eds.) Climate Change 1992: The Supplementary Report to the
IPCC Scientific Assessment.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K. 200 pp.
Kaplan, W.A., S.C. Wofsy, M. Keller and J.M. da
Costa. 1988. Emission of NO and
deposition of O3 in a tropical forest system. Journal of
Geophysical Research 93: 1389-1395.
Keller, M., D.J. Jacob, S.C. Wofsy and R.C.
Harriss. 1991. Effects of tropical
deforestation on global and regional atmospheric chemistry. Climatic Change
19(1-2): 139-158.
Keller, M., W.A. Kaplan and S.C. Wofsy.
1986. Emissions of N2O, CH4
and CO2 from tropical forest soils. Journal of Geophysical
Research 91: 11,791-11,802.
Klinge, H.
1973. Biomassa y materia orgánica del suelo en el ecosistema de la pluviselva
centro-amazónica. Acta Científica Venezolana 24(5): 174-181.
Klinge, H. 1977. Fine litter production and
nutrient return to the soil in three natural forest stands of Eastern
Amazonia. Geo-Eco-Trop 1(2): 159-167.
Klinge, H. and W.A. Rodrigues. 1968. Litter production in an area of Amazonian
terra firme forest. Part I. Litter-fall,
organic carbon and total nitrogen contents of litter. Amazoniana 1(4): 287-302.
Lang, G.E. and D.H. Knight. 1979. Decay rates of
boles for tropical trees in Panama. Biotropica
11(4): 316-317.
Lugo, A.E. and S. Brown. 1981. Tropical lands: popular misconceptions. Mazingira 5(2): 10‑19.
Lugo, A.E. and S. Brown. 1982. Conversion of tropical moist forests: a
critique. Interciencia 7(2): 89‑93.
Lugo, A.E. and S. Brown. 1992. Tropical forests
as sinks of atmospheric carbon. Forest
Ecology and Management 54: 239-255.
Luizão, F.J.
1989. Litter production and mineral element input to the forest floor in
a Central Amazonian forest. Geo-Journal 19(4): 407-417.
Luizão, F., P. Matson, G. Livingston, R. Luizão
and P. Vitousek. 1989. Nitrous oxide
flux following tropical land clearing. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 3:
281-285.
Martius,
C. 1989. Untersuchungen zur Ökologie des Holzabbaus durch Termiten
(Isoptera) in zentralamazonischen Überschwemmungswäldern (Várzea). AFRA‑Verlag,
Frankfurt am Main, Germany. 285 pp.
Martius, C., P.M. Fearnside, A.G. Bandeira, and
R. Wassmann nd. Deforestation and methane release from termites in Amazonia.
(in preparation).
Moran, E.F., E. Brondizio, P. Mausel and Y. Wo.
1994. Integrating Amazonian vegetation, land-use, and satellite data. BioScience 44(5): 329-338.
Puig, H. and J.-P.
Delobelle. 1988. Production de litière, nécromasse, apports minéreaux au sol
par la litière en forêt Guyanaise. Revue
Ecologie (Terre Vie) 43: 3-22.
Rasmussen, R.A. and M.A.K.
Khalil. 1988. Isoprene over the Amazon Basin. Journal of
Geophysical Research 93: 1417-1421.
Saldarriaga, J.G., D.C. West and M.L. Tharp.
1986. Forest Succession in the Upper Rio Negro of Colombia and Venezuela.
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Environmental Sciences Publication No. 2694,
ORNL/TM-9712. National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia,
U.S.A. 164 pp.
Scott, D.A., J. Proctor and J. Thompson. nd.
Ecological studies on a lowland evergreen rain forest on Maracá Island,
Roraima, Brazil II. Litter and nutrient cycling. (manuscript, 41 pp.).
Silva, M.F.F. 1984. Produção anual de
serrapilheira e seu conteudo minerológico em mata tropical de terra firme,
Tucuruí-PA. Boletim do Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi, Botânica. 1(1/2): 111-158.
Silva, M.F.F.
and M.G.A. Lobo. 1982. Nota sobre deposição da matéria orgânica em
floresta de terra firme, várzea e igapó.
Boletim do Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi No. 56: 1-13.
Silveira, V.
1992. "Amazônia polui com apenas 1,4%" Gazeta Mercantil [São
Paulo] 29 May 1992, pp. 2 and 6.
Skole, D.L., W.H. Chomentowski, W.A. Salas and
A.D. Nobre. 1994. Physical and human dimensions of deforestation in Amazonia. BioScience
44(5): 314-322.
Sombroek, W.G. 1992. Biomass and carbon storage
in the Amazon ecosystems. Interciencia
17(5): 269-272.
Uhl, C., R. Buschbacher and E.A.S. Serrão. 1988.
Abandoned pastures in Eastern Amazonia. I. Patterns of plant succession. Journal
of Ecology 76: 663-681.
Veríssimo, A., P. Barreto, M. Mattos, R. Tarifa
and C. Uhl. 1992. Logging impacts and prospects for sustainable forest
management in an old Amazonian frontier: The case of Paragominas. Forest
Ecology and Management 55: 169-199.
|
TABLE 1: 1990 ANNUAL BALANCE OF NET EMISSIONS BY
SOURCE |
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
IN THE ORIGINALLY FORESTED AREA OF
THE BRAZILIAN LEGAL AMAZON(a): |
|
|
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
LOW TRACE GAS SCENARIO |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Sinks |
|
||||||||||||||||||||||
|
Source |
|
|
|
| |
Emissions (million t of gas) |
|
|
|
(Million t carbon) |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Graphitic |
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
Charcoal |
particulate |
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
CO2 |
CH4 |
CO |
N2O |
NOx |
NMHC |
carbon |
carbon |
||||||||||||||||||||||
|
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
| |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
||||||||||||||||||||||
|
ORIGINAL FOREST BIOMASS |
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
Initial burn |
|
| |
228.15 |
0.74 |
17.66 |
0.05 |
0.56 |
0.49 |
4.13 |
0.17 |
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
Reburns |
|
|
| |
82.50 |
0.41 |
12.96 |
0.02 |
0.65 |
0.21 |
1.39 |
0.10 |
||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
Termites above‑ground
decay |
| |
15.27 |
0.02 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
Other above‑ground decay |
| |
540.79 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
Below‑ground decay |
|
| |
320.18 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
SECONDARY FOREST BIOMASS |
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
Burning(b) |
|
| |
49.93 |
0.16 |
3.87 |
0.010 |
0.06 |
0.11 |
0.01 |
0.04 |
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
Termites above‑ground
decay |
| |
0.39 |
0.000 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
Other above‑ground decay |
| |
12.96 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
Below‑ground decay |
|
| |
20.53 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
Termites in secondary forest |
| |
0.00 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
PRE‑1970 SECONDARY FOREST
BIOMASS |
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
Initial burning |
|
| |
4.50 |
0.015 |
0.349 |
0.001 |
0.011 |
0.010 |
0.082 |
0.00 |
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
Reburnings |
|
| |
1.08 |
0.005 |
0.169 |
0.000 |
0.009 |
0.003 |
0.018 |
0.00 |
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
Termites above‑ground
decay |
| |
0.23 |
0.0002 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
Other above‑ground decay |
| |
8.05 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
Below‑ground decay |
|
| |
3.00 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
Termites in pre‑1970
stands |
| |
0.00 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
PASTURE BURNING |
|
|
| |
(c) |
0.06 |
1.39 |
0.004 |
0.10 |
0.04 |
0.00 |
0.01 |
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
HYDROELECTRIC DAMS |
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
Forest biomass |
|
| |
37.45 |
0.12 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
Water |
|
|
| |
0.11 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
Macrophytes |
|
| |
0.04 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||
|
OTHER SOURCES |
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
Cattle |
|
|
| |
0.32 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
Pasture soil |
|
| |
|
|
0.08 |
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
Loss of intact forest |
| |
0.02 |
|
|
‑4.24 |
‑0.46 |
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
sources and sinks |
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
Loss of natural forest |
| |
‑0.02 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
termites |
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
Soil carbon (top 20 cm) |
| |
31.50 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||
|
TOTAL EMISSIONS |
|
|
| |
1,356.52 |
1.98 |
36.40 |
0.15 |
‑2.86 |
0.39 |
5.63 |
0.32 |
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||
|
UPTAKE |
|
|
|
| |
‑107.89 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||
|
NET EMISSIONS |
|
|
| |
1,248.63 |
1.98 |
36.40 |
0.15 |
‑2.86 |
0.39 |
5.63 |
0.32 |
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||
|
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
| |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
||||||||||||||||||||||
|
(a) Deforestation in originally forested area
in 1990 was 1,381,800 ha. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||
|
(b) Secondary forest burning includes both
initial and subsequent burns for |
|
|
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
secondary forest from both agriculture
and pasture, and for degraded pasture that is cut |
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
and recuperated. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||
|
(c) CO2 from maintenance burning of pasture
is not counted, as this is re‑assimilated |
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
annually as the pastures regrow, making
the net flux equal to zero. |
|
|
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
The gross flux in 1990 from this source is
estimated at 18 X 106 t of CO2 gas. |
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
TABLE 2: 1990 ANNUAL BALANCE OF NET EMISSIONS
BY SOURCE |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||
|
IN THE ORIGINALLY FORESTED AREA OF THE
BRAZILIAN LEGAL AMAZON(a): |
|
|
|
||||||||||||
|
HIGH TRACE GAS SCENARIO |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Sinks |
|
|||
|
Source |
|
|
|
| |
Emissions (million t of gas) |
|
|
(million t carbon) |
|||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
|||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Graphitic |
||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
Charcoal |
particulate |
||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
CO2 |
CH4 |
CO |
N2O |
NOx |
NMHC |
carbon |
carbon |
|||
|
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
| |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
|||
|
ORIGINAL FOREST BIOMASS |
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
Initial burn |
|
| |
228.15 |
0.88 |
22.08 |
0.05 |
0.56 |
0.93 |
4.13 |
0.21 |
||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
Reburns |
|
|
| |
82.50 |
0.65 |
16.50 |
0.14 |
0.65 |
0.40 |
1.39 |
0.15 |
|||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
Termites above‑ground decay |
| |
16.80 |
0.02 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
Other above-ground decay |
| |
540.79 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
ow-ground
decay |
|
| |
320.18 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
SECONDARY FOREST BIOMASS |
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
Burning(b) |
|
| |
47.65 |
0.18 |
4.61 |
0.010 |
0.05 |
0.19 |
0.01 |
0.04 |
||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
Termites above-ground decay |
| |
0.37 |
0.0003 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
Other above-ground decay |
| |
12.31 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
Below-ground decay |
|
| |
19.54 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
Termites in secondary forest |
| |
0.002 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
PRE-1970 SECONDARY FOREST BIOMASS |
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
Initial burning |
|
| |
4.50 |
0.017 |
0.436 |
0.001 |
0.011 |
0.018 |
0.082 |
0.00 |
||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
Reburnings |
|
| |
1.08 |
0.008 |
0.216 |
0.002 |
0.009 |
0.005 |
0.018 |
0.00 |
||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
Termites above-ground decay |
| |
0.25 |
0.0002 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
Other above-ground decay |
| |
8.05 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
Below-ground decay |
|
| |
3.00 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
Termites in pre-1970 stands |
| |
0.00 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
PASTURE BURNING |
|
|
| |
(c) |
0.07 |
1.67 |
0.003 |
0.09 |
0.07 |
0.00 |
0.02 |
||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
HYDROELECTRIC DAMS |
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
Forest biomass |
|
| |
37.45 |
0.12 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
Water |
|
|
| |
0.11 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
Macrophytes |
|
| |
0.04 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
OTHER SOURCES |
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
Cattle |
|
|
| |
0.30 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
Pasture soil |
|
| |
|
|
0.07 |
|
|
|
|
|||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
Loss of intact forest |
| |
0.02 |
|
|
-4.06 |
‑0.44 |
|
|
||||||
|
|
sources and sinks |
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
Loss of natural forest |
| |
-0.02 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||
|
|
termites |
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
Soil carbon (top 20 cm) |
| |
30.25 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
TOTAL EMISSIONS |
|
|
| |
1352.89 |
2.39 |
45.51 |
0.27 |
-2.68 |
1.17 |
5.62 |
0.42 |
||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
UPTAKE |
|
|
|
| |
-107.89 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
NET EMISSIONS |
|
|
| |
1244.99 |
2.39 |
45.51 |
0.27 |
-2.68 |
1.17 |
5.62 |
0.42 |
||||
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
| |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
|||
|
(a)
Deforestation in originally forested area in 1990 was |
1,381,800 |
hectares. |
|
|
|
||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||
|
(b) Secondary
forest burning includes both initial and subsequent burns for |
|
|
|
||||||||||||
|
secondary forest from both agriculture and pasture, and for degraded
pasture that is cut |
|
|
|||||||||||||
|
and
recuperated. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||
|
(c) CO2
from maintenance burning of pasture is not counted, as this is re-assimilated |
|
|
|||||||||||||
|
annually as the pastures regrow, making the net flux equal to zero. |
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||
|
The
gross flux in 1990 from this source is estimated at |
17 |
million t of CO2 gas. |
|
||||||||||||
|
TABLE 3: PRE-1970 SECONDARY FOREST: AREA AND
RATE OF CLEARING 1970-1988 |
||||||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Area of pre-1970 secondary forest cleared per year (km2) |
Percent of pre-1970 secondary forest area cleared per year |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
State |
Area of
pre-1970 |
|
||||
|
|
secondary forest (km2) |
|||||
|
|
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
|||
|
|
Present in 1988(a) |
Cleared by 1988(b) |
Present in 1970(c) |
|||
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Pará |
39,819 |
10,369 |
50,188 |
576 |
1.15 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Maranhão |
57,824 |
2,459 |
60,283 |
137 |
0.23 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Total |
97,643 |
12,828 |
110,471 |
713 |
0.65 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
|
(a) Fearnside et al., nd-a |
|
|
|
|
||
|
(b) Fearnside, 1990: 219. |
|
|
|
|
||
|
(c) The year before which secondary forests are
considered |
||||||
|
"old deforestation" is reported variously by the INPE team
working |
||||||
|
with the
images as 1960 and 1970. In truth,
both are guesses. |
||||||
|
Here
1970 is assumed to be the date, as the clearing prior |
||||||
|
to
this would have been much slower than that after this date. |
||||||
|
TABLE 4: ABOVE-GROUND DECAY IN SLASH-AND-BURN
FIELDS |
|
|
|
|
|
|||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Source |
Biomass type |
Age range of decaying biomass |
Age midpoint |
Above- ground biomass dry wt. (t ha-1) |
Interval |
Interval |
Decay |
Note |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Length |
rate |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
(years)
|
("k") |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
|
Uhl and |
Mature forest |
0 |
0 |
188 |
|
|
|
(a) |
|
Saldarriaga, nd. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
3-4 |
3.5 |
97.3 |
0-3.5 |
3.5 |
-0.188 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
6-7 |
6.5 |
56 |
3.5-6.5 |
3 |
-0.184 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
8-10 |
9 |
45.3 |
6.5-9 |
2.5 |
-0.085 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
12-20 |
16 |
22.7 |
9-16 |
7 |
-0.099 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Buschbacher, |
Mature forest |
0.5 |
0.5 |
279 |
|
|
|
|
|
1984: 72 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
2.5 |
2.5 |
208 |
0.5-2.5 |
2 |
-0.147 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Secondary forest |
0.5 |
0.5 |
17.7 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
2.5 |
2.5 |
14.2 |
0.5-2.5 |
2 |
-0.110 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
AVERAGE DECAY RATES FOR MATURE AND SECONDARY
FOREST REMAINS IN INTERBURN INTERVALS |
|
|
||||||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Interval |
Interval
length
(years) |
Mature forest |
|
Secondary forest |
|
|
||
|
|
|
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
|
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
|
|
|
|
|
Annual rate |
Fraction surviving decay in interval |
|
Annual |
Fraction |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
rate |
surviving |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
decay in |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
interval |
|
|
|
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
|
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
|
|
|
0-4 yrs |
5 |
-0.168 |
0.400 |
|
‑0.110 |
0.558 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
5-7 yrs |
3 |
-0.184 |
0.543 |
|
‑0.110 |
0.705 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
8-10 yrs |
3 |
-0.085 |
0.767 |
|
‑0.110 |
0.705 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
After 10 yrs |
infinite |
-0.099 |
0.000 |
|
‑0.110 |
0.000 |
|
|
|
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
a) Uses initial biomass of 290 t ha-1
from Stark and Spratt, 1977, |
|
|
|
|
||||
|
less loss to combustion with efficency of |
0.332 |
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
and charcoal formation fraction of |
0.019 |
(mean of measurements |
|
|
|
|||
|
by Fearnside et al., 1993, nd-b,c). |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
TABLE 5:
FINE LITTER PRODUCTION IN AMAZONIAN FORESTS |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
COUNTRY |
Location |
State |
Forest type |
Annual production (t dry weight/ha) |
|
|
|
|
Reference |
|
|
|||||
|
|
|
|
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
|
|
|
|||
|
|
|
|
|
Leaf litter |
Wood <20 mm
diameter |
Wood <25 mm diameter |
Wood of unstated diameter |
Flowers and fruits |
Other fine litter |
Total fine litter reported |
Total fine litter <20 mm or <25 mm
|
|
|
|
||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
||
|
Brazil |
Manaus |
Amazonas |
Terra firme |
5.60 |
|
|
1.35 |
0.35 |
|
7.30 |
|
Klinge and Rodrigues, 1968: 295. |
||||
|
|
(Reserva Egler) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||
|
|
Manaus |
Amazonas |
Terra firme |
5.42 |
|
1.56 |
|
0.42 |
0.79 |
8.19 |
8.19 |
Luizão, 1989: 410. |
|
|||
|
|
(Bacia Modelo) |
Plateau site |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
|
Manaus |
Amazonas |
Terra firme |
4.69 |
|
1.17 |
|
0.43 |
1.12 |
7.41 |
7.41 |
Luizão, 1989: 410. |
|
|||
|
|
(Bacia Modelo) |
Valley site |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
|
Manaus |
Amazonas |
Terra firme |
6.34 |
|
|
1.03 |
0.47 |
|
7.90 |
|
Franken et al., 1979: 227. |
||||
|
|
(Reserva Ducke) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
|
Capitão |
Pará |
Terra firme |
|
|
|
|
|
|
8.04 |
|
Dantas and Phillipson, 1989. |
||||
|
|
Poco |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
|
Belém |
Pará |
Terra firme |
8.0 |
|
|
|
|
|
9.9 |
|
Klinge, 1977 |
|
|||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
|
Belém |
Pará |
Terra firme |
6.1 |
|
|
0.88 |
0.31 |
|
7.3 |
|
Silva and Lobo, 1982 |
||||
|
|
(Mocambo) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
|
Tucuruí |
Para |
Terra firme |
4.76 |
|
|
|
|
|
6.65 |
|
Silva, 1984. |
|
|||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
|
Apiaú |
Roraima |
Terra firme |
5.73 |
|
|
|
|
|
9.15 |
|
Barbosa and Fearnside, nd. |
||||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
|
Maracá |
Roraima |
Terra firme |
6.30 |
1.34 |
|
|
1.21 |
0.42 |
9.3 |
9.3 |
Scott et al., nd |
|
|||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
French |
Piste de |
|
Terra firme |
5.67 |
|
|
1.44 |
0.72 |
|
7.83 |
|
Puig and Delobelle, 1988: 8. |
||||
|
Guiana |
Saint-Elie |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
Venezuela |
San Carlos |
|
Terra firme |
7.56 |
|
|
|
|
|
10.25 |
|
Cuevas and Medina, 1988 |
||||
|
|
de Rio Negro |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
||
|
MEAN |
|
|
|
6.02 |
1.34 |
1.37 |
1.18 |
0.56 |
0.78 |
8.27 |
8.30 |
|
|
|
||
|
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
||
|
TABLE 6: STOCKS OF LARGE DEAD BIOMASS IN
UNDISTURBED TERRA FIRME FORESTS |
|
|
|||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
Country |
Location |
|
Downed wood (t dry wt/ha) |
Standing dead wood |
Total large dead |
Reference |
|
||||
|
|
|
|
‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
|
|
||||
|
|
|
|
Small |
trunks |
total |
|
|
||||
|
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
||
|
Brazil |
Manaus, Amazonas |
|
|
18.02 |
7.60 |
25.62 |
Klinge, 1973 |
||||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
|
Maracá, Roraima |
1.72 |
2.38 |
4.10 |
0.98 |
5.08 |
Scott et al., nd. |
||||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
French |
Piste de |
|
3.60 |
11.42 |
15.02 |
3.49 |
18.51 |
Puig and |
|
||
|
Guiana |
Sainte-Elie |
|
|
|
|
|
Delobelle, |
||||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1988: 12. |
|
||
|
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
||
|
Mean |
|
|
|
|
12.38 |
4.02 |
16.40 |
|
|
||
|
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ |
||